In the study design only households with children below the age of five were sampled with the intention of focusing on the specific risks for young children of being injected. Indicator Ic aimed at establishing age categories in the research population (defined as all members of all households included in the study) at risk for receiving injections. This indicator was expressed as:

As age categories the following were used:

• 0 - 4 years of age
• 5 - 14 years of age
• 15 years and above.

Unfortunately, in Uganda the age and sex distribution of the total research population was not recorded, so relative frequencies (Indicator Ic and Id) cannot be calculated.

In Indonesia, the data suggests that young children particularly are at high risk of being given an injection (Figure 8). Since only very few immunizations were recorded, most of these injections in young children were probably given for therapeutic reasons. In the past two weeks, the percentage of young children injected was 18% (Lebak) and 22% (Lombok) of the total population of under-fives. Differences between the age categories in both districts are highly significant (**p=0.001). Differences in age distribution of injected patients between Lebak and Lombok are not statistically significant (p=0.05). The injection rates of young children are twice as high as the average rate of the total research population.

In Thailand, the percentage of young children who received at least one injection was 9% (10/114). Overall the injection rate was 6% (58/994). Of all children who sought treatment, some 40% were injected as part of their treatment. No children under the age of one received therapeutic injections of IV fluid (WHO/DAP/94.8: 41-42).

Indicator Id aimed at establishing differences between the sexes and injection use: the percentage of females and of males in the research population who received at least one injection in the past two weeks is calculated in the same way as in (Ic).

This indicator can only be calculated in Indonesia. The distribution of males and females in the research population in both regions is almost even with a slightly higher percentage of females in both regions, around 51%. The data of injected persons shows that there are no major sex differences in injection use (Figure 9). There are also no differences between Lebak and Lombok (p=0.05).

In Thailand, there were also slightly more females in the research population (52%). Remarkably, here the injection rates for females were much higher than for males: 7% of the female population received an injection or IV fluid in the past two weeks compared to 4% of the male research population (WHO/DAP/94.8:42). This may be related to the sex of the health centre staff: men said they were embarrassed to receive injections from a woman as most injections were given in the buttocks (WHO/DAP/94.8:45).

Figure 8. Injection use in age categories (Household survey - Indonesia)

N = total research population (all household members)
0-4 years: Lebak n=496; Lombok n=510. 5-14 years: Lebak n=623; Lombok n=541
15 years & up: Lebak n=1211; Lombok n=1010

Figure 9. Injection use in sex categories (Household survey - Indonesia)

N = total research population (all household members)
Female: Lebak n=1191; Lombok n=1056
Male: Lebak n=1139; Lombok n=1005